{"id":14702,"date":"2013-06-07T15:34:22","date_gmt":"2013-06-07T11:34:22","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/archive2.ankakh.com\/?p=14702"},"modified":"2013-06-07T15:34:22","modified_gmt":"2013-06-07T11:34:22","slug":"papaver","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/archive2.ankakh.com\/en\/?p=14702","title":{"rendered":"Papaver"},"content":{"rendered":"

\"papaver_rhoeas-2large\"<\/a>Papaver<\/i>\u00a0\/p\u0259\u02c8pe\u026av\u0259r\/\u00a0is a\u00a0genus\u00a0of 70\u2013100\u00a0species\u00a0of frost-tolerant\u00a0annuals,\u00a0biennials, and\u00a0perennials\u00a0native\u00a0to\u00a0temperate\u00a0and cold regions of Eurasia, Africa and North America. It is the type genus of the\u00a0poppy\u00a0family,\u00a0Papaveraceae.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
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  • <\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n

    Description<\/h2>\n

    The\u00a0flowers\u00a0have two\u00a0sepals\u00a0that fall off as the\u00a0bud\u00a0opens, and four (or up to six)\u00a0petals\u00a0in red, pink, orange, yellow, or lilac. There are many\u00a0stamens\u00a0in several whorls around a compound\u00a0pistil, which results from the fusion of carpels. The\u00a0stigmas\u00a0are visible on top of the capsule, and the number of stigmas corresponds to the number of fused carpels.<\/p>\n

    The\u00a0ovary\u00a0later develops in a\u00a0dehiscing\u00a0capsule, capped by the dried stigmas. The numerous, tiny\u00a0seeds\u00a0escape with the slightest breeze through the pores of the capsule.<\/p>\n

    The typical\u00a0Papaver<\/i>\u00a0gynoecium\u00a0is hypogenous with a globular ovary. The\u00a0style\u00a0is characteristically absent for the type species\u00a0Opium Poppy, and several others, although those with a style do exist.The sessile plate-like stigmata lies on top of the ovary. Pollen-receptive surfaces. The characteristic fruit type of\u00a0Papaver<\/i>\u00a0is the unilocular capsule. The stigmatic disc rests on top of the capsule, and beneath it are dehiscent pores or valves.[4]<\/sup><\/p>\n

    History and uses<\/h2>\n

    Poppies have been grown as\u00a0ornamental plants\u00a0since 5000 BC in\u00a0Mesopotamia. They were found in\u00a0Egyptian\u00a0tombs. In\u00a0Greek\u00a0mythology, the poppy was associated with\u00a0Demeter, goddess of fertility and\u00a0agriculture. The origin of the cultural symbol was probably\u00a0Minoan\u00a0Crete, because a figurine known as the “poppy goddess” was found at a Minoan sanctuary in Crete. People believed they would get a bountiful crop if poppies grew in their fields, hence the name ‘corn poppy’.
    \n<\/sup><\/p>\n

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    The seed-heads of\u00a0Papaver somniferum<\/i>\u00a0are slit to release the latex, which contains various narcotics.<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n

    In the course of history, poppies have always been attributed important medicinal properties. The stems contain a milky\u00a0latex\u00a0that may cause skin irritation, and the latex in the opium poppy (Papaver somniferum<\/i>) contains several\u00a0narcotic\u00a0alkaloids, including\u00a0morphine\u00a0and\u00a0codeine. The alkaloid\u00a0rhoeadine, derived from the flowers of the corn poppy (Papaver rhoeas<\/i>), is used as a mild\u00a0sedative.\u00a0Poppy seeds\u00a0are used in baking and cooking, and\u00a0poppyseed oil\u00a0is used in cooking and pharmaceuticals, and as aradiocontrast\u00a0agent.<\/p>\n

    The ancient Greeks portrayed\u00a0Hypnos,\u00a0Nyx\u00a0and\u00a0Thanatos, the gods of sleep, night and death, with the symbol of the poppy. The earliest written record appeared in the eighth century BC. Early Greek accounts seem to indicate the plant was used for euthanasia; on some Greek islands, women used it in old age to shorten the time left until natural death.\u00a0Hippocrates\u00a0(460\u2013377 BC) was one of the first to emphasize the medicinal uses of the poppy and outline several methods of preparation. He described poppy juice as narcotic, hypnotic, and cathartic. He also recognized the plant\u2019s uses as food, particularly the seeds.By the first century AD, Dioskorides wrote down the first poppy taxonomy. He distinguished between several different kinds, the first of which was the “cultivated” or “garden” poppies. He further distinguished two types within this category, ones with black and others with white seeds. Both had elongated capsules and the black-seeded variety was involuted. Historians speculate this variety was\u00a0Papaver somniferum<\/i>. Other species were in use, as well. Dioskorides named the \u201cflowering\u201d poppy as a type with strong hypnotic properties. This is believed to be\u00a0Papaver hybridum<\/i>. Finally, the \u201cwild\u201d poppy he described is believed to be\u00a0Papaver orientale<\/i>.\u00a0Pliny the Elder, a Roman historian, later mentioned an \u201cintermediate\u201d type between the wild and cultivated poppy, likely\u00a0Papaver rhoeas<\/i>. He wrote about medical applications of the plant; the leaves and capsules were boiled in water to create juice, pressed and rubbed to create tablets, and the dried latex was used to form opium. These products were used in much the same way they are in many cultures today, to promote sleep and to relieve indigestion and respiratory problems.
    \n<\/sup><\/p>\n

    A century later, Galen wrote even more extensively about the diverse applications of various poppy products. He wrote that opium was the strongest known drug for dulling the senses and for inducing sleep. He wrote about its use to treat a variety of ailments, including eye and lung inflammation.
    \n<\/sup><\/p>\n

    The “opium wars” between China and Great Britain that occurred in 1839\u20131842 and 1856\u20131860 were the result of the Chinese Emperor\u2019s attempt to suppress the increasing opium imports of British East India Company into China.In the first half of the 19th century, poppy seed oil was an important food crop, but large-scale production did not begin until Europe began to manufacture morphine in the mid-19th century. While 800\u20131000 tons of Indian opium are processed legally each year, this represents only an estimated 5% of total opium production worldwide; the majority is produced illegally. The first factory specializing in dry capsule processing was built in 1928.
    \n<\/sup><\/p>\n

    Today, morphine and codeine are common alkaloids found in several poppy varieties, and are important drugs for much of the world. Australia, Turkey and India are the most important producers of poppy for medicinal use, while the USA, the UK, France, Australia and Hungary are the largest processors.\u00a0In the United States, opium is illegal, as is possession or cultivation of the flower itself.\u00a0However, the law is seldom enforced when poppies are grown for culinary or ornamental use. The Opium Poppy Control Act Of 1942 led to the \u201cPoppy Rebellion\u201d, and a battle between California farmers and the federal government. Today, the law and its enforcement remain vague and controversial, even inciting episodes between gardeners and “the poppy police”.
    \n<\/sup><\/p>\n

    They are also sold as cut flowers in flower arrangements, especially the Iceland poppy.<\/p>\n

    Taxonomy<\/h2>\n

    Divided into a number of\u00a0sections\u00a0by Kiger (1973, 1985),\u00a0the following are\u00a0lectotypified\u00a0with their lectotype species. Subsequent\u00a0cladistic\u00a0classification by Carolan\u00a0et al.<\/i>\u00a0(2006) suggested\u00a0Papaver<\/i>\u00a0was notmonophyletic.<\/p>\n

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    • Clade 1.\u00a0P.<\/i>\u00a0sect.\u00a0Meconella<\/i>,\u00a0Meconopsis<\/i><\/li>\n
    • Clade 2.\u00a0P.<\/i>\u00a0sect.\u00a0Carinatae<\/i>,\u00a0P.<\/i>\u00a0sect.\u00a0Meconidium<\/i>,\u00a0P.<\/i>\u00a0sect.\u00a0Oxytona<\/i>,\u00a0P.<\/i>\u00a0sect.\u00a0Papaver<\/i>,\u00a0P.<\/i>\u00a0sect.\u00a0Pilosa<\/i>,\u00a0P.<\/i>\u00a0sect.\u00a0Pseudopilosa<\/i>,\u00a0Meconopsis cambrica<\/i>,\u00a0P.<\/i>\u00a0sect.\u00a0Californicum<\/i>,\u00a0P.<\/i>\u00a0sect.\u00a0Horrida<\/i>\u00a0and\u00a0P.<\/i>\u00a0sect.Rhoeadium<\/i><\/li>\n
    • Clade 3.\u00a0P.<\/i>\u00a0sect.\u00a0Argemonidium<\/i>,\u00a0Roemeria refracta<\/i><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n

      The following are\u00a0lectotypified\u00a0with their lectotype species:<\/p>\n

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      • P.<\/i>\u00a0sect.\u00a0Carinatae<\/i>\u00a0(P. macrostomum<\/i>\u00a0Boiss. & Huet)<\/li>\n
      • P.<\/i>\u00a0sect.\u00a0Oxytona<\/i>\u00a0(P. orientale<\/i>\u00a0L.)<\/li>\n
      • P.<\/i>\u00a0sect.\u00a0Macrantha<\/i>\u00a0(P. orientale<\/i>\u00a0L.) – superfluous<\/li>\n
      • P.<\/i>\u00a0sect.\u00a0Calomecon<\/i>\u00a0(Calomecon orientale<\/i>)<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n

        Phylogeny of\u00a0Papaver<\/i>\u00a0and related genera<\/h2>\n
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        Illustration of\u00a0Papaver argemone<\/i><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n

        Papaver<\/i>\u00a0sect.\u00a0Argemonidium<\/i>\u00a0includes four annual, half-rosette species,\u00a0P. argemone<\/i>,\u00a0P. pavonium<\/i>,\u00a0P. apulum<\/i>, and\u00a0P. hybridum<\/i>\u00a0(Kadereit 1986a).\u00a0Papaver apulum,<\/i>\u00a0P. argemone<\/i>\u00a0and\u00a0P. pavonium<\/i>\u00a0occur allopatrically from the Adriatic Sea to the Himalayan range.\u00a0P. hybridum<\/i>\u00a0is distributed widely from the Himalayas to Macaronesian Islands.[11]<\/sup>\u00a0These species are easily distinguished in petal and capsule characters,[11]<\/sup>\u00a0but are clearly closely related according to molecular analysis.\u00a0Argemonidium<\/i>\u00a0is a sister group to all other\u00a0Papaver<\/i>\u00a0sections, with characteristic indels.\u00a0Morphological characters also support this distinction, including the presence of an apical plug in the capsules, long internodes above the basal leaf rosette, bristly capsules and polyporate pollen grains.\u00a0Carolan et al. (2006) supported Kadereit et al. (1997)\u2019s suggestions that\u00a0Argemonidium<\/i>\u00a0and\u00a0Roemeria<\/i>\u00a0are in fact sister taxa.They share some morphological characters that distinguish them from\u00a0Papaver<\/i>, including polyporate pollen grains, and long internodes superior the basal leaf rosette.Previous taxonomies of the Old World clade did include the close relationship between\u00a0Argemonidium<\/i>\u00a0andRoemeria<\/i>, nor\u00a0Argemonidium<\/i>\u2019s distinctness from\u00a0Papaver<\/i>\u00a0s.s. Carolan suggest\u00a0Argemonidium<\/i>\u00a0be elevated to genus status, with\u00a0Roemeria<\/i>\u00a0a sub-genus.<\/p>\n

        Papaver<\/i>\u00a0sect.\u00a0Meconella<\/i>\u00a0is widely distributed, with populations spanning central, inner and eastern Asia, Siberia, Scandinavia, northern Greenland, Canada, the Rocky Mountains, and regions of Europe.[14]<\/sup>\u00a0It has been distinguished from other\u00a0Papaver<\/i>\u00a0sections morphologically by its bristly, valvate capsules, pinnatisect leaves, pale stamen, and white, orange or yellow corolla.[14]<\/sup>\u00a0Older taxonomies divided\u00a0Meconella<\/i>\u00a0into two groups based on degree of leaf dissection (finely dissected leaves vs. broad leaf lobes). Kadereit (1990) and Kadereit and Sytsma (1992) regarded finely dissected leaves as a derived character, and suggested that\u00a0Meconella<\/i>\u00a0formed a group with\u00a0Argemonidium<\/i>\u00a0as sister to other\u00a0Papaver<\/i>\u00a0sects. Bittkau and Kadereit (2002) demonstrated that for\u00a0P. alpinum<\/i>\u00a0s.l. broad leaf lobes were ancestral. Carolan et al. (2006) resolved\u00a0Meconopsis<\/i>\u00a0as sister to sect.\u00a0Meconella<\/i>, forming a sister clade to the rest of\u00a0Papaver<\/i>, excluding\u00a0Argemonidium<\/i>.[13]<\/sup>\u00a0Meconella<\/i>\u00a0possesses a sessile stigmatic disc, similar to the typical discs of\u00a0Papaver<\/i>\u00a0sect.\u00a0Papaver<\/i>., yet differences in the disc and other morphological characters have led to suggestions that this feature may not be homologous.[13]<\/sup>\u00a0The results of the Carolan\u00a0et al.<\/i>\u00a0(2006) analysis present a major problem to previous taxonomy of the genera\u00a0Meconopsis<\/i>, and\u00a0Papaver<\/i>. As several species of\u00a0Meconopsis<\/i>(excluding\u00a0M. cambrica<\/i>) and\u00a0P. Meconella<\/i>\u00a0resolved as a monophyletic group, sister to other\u00a0Papaver<\/i>\u00a0sects., either\u00a0Meconella<\/i>\u00a0must be elevated to genus status, or combined with the Asian species of\u00a0Meconopsis<\/i>, as a subgenus of\u00a0Papaver<\/i>.<\/p>\n

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        The California poppy,\u00a0Papaver californicum<\/i>, is placed in a section on its own.<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n

        Papaver<\/i>\u00a0sects.\u00a0Californicum<\/i>\u00a0and\u00a0Horrida<\/i>\u00a0have unique geographic distributions in relation to the rest of the genus.\u00a0Horrida<\/i>\u00a0is represented by a single species\u00a0Papaver aculeatum<\/i>\u00a0of, an annual flower native to South Africa. The capsule is glabrous narrow, long and poricidal. The vegetative parts are covered with setae, and the growth form is a rosette with rarely branching axes, and narrowly elliptical incised leaves.\u00a0P. sect. californicum, is also represented by a single annual species, of the same name. As the name implies, it is native to western North America, and is characterized by a slender, ribbed, glabrous capsule, a racemose inforescence, yellow anthers and filaments, and valvate capsule dehiscece.\u00a0Previous morphological-based taxonomies of these species have led to unreliable groupings.\u00a0Horrida<\/i>\u00a0and\u00a0Pilosa<\/i>\u00a0have recemose inforescences, pale filiform filaments and long capsules with flat stigmatic discs, while\u00a0P. californicum<\/i>\u00a0and sect.\u00a0Meconidium<\/i>\u00a0share valvate capsule dehiscence and pale filaments, but geographically these species are distinct, and do not follow molecular evidence. Commonality among these features is therefor hypothesized to be a result of convergence. In Carolan et al.\u2019s (2006) combined ITS, trnL-F trees, both\u00a0Horrida<\/i>\u00a0and\u00a0Californicum<\/i>\u00a0attach to basal nodes within the main clade\u00a0Papaver<\/i>. Kadereitet al.<\/i>\u00a0(1997) postulated that\u00a0Stylomecon heterophylla<\/i>\u00a0arose from within\u00a0Papaver<\/i>\u00a0and should not be relegated as a separate genus.\u00a0S. heterophylla<\/i>\u00a0and\u00a0P. californicum<\/i>\u00a0are both native to southwestern North America, and share habitats. They are also morphologically similar, sharing glabrous buds, bright orange corollas, and yellow anthers.[16]<\/sup>\u00a0Their capsules are different, with\u00a0S. heterophylla<\/i>\u00a0possessing a distinct style that is reminiscent of those in many\u00a0Meconopsis<\/i>\u00a0species. However, Carolan et al.\u2019s (2006) analysis strongly supports a monophyletic group for\u00a0S. heterophylla<\/i>\u00a0and\u00a0P. californicum<\/i>, sister to the core\u00a0Papaver<\/i>\u00a0sects, with\u00a0Horrida<\/i>, basal to that grouping. They recommended that both sects.\u00a0Californicum<\/i>\u00a0and\u00a0Horrida<\/i>\u00a0be elevated to \u201csubgenera\u201d within\u00a0Papaver<\/i>. The authors reject the genus status of\u00a0Stylomecon<\/i>.<\/p>\n

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        The Welsh poppy,\u00a0Meconopsis cambrica<\/i>, may belong in the genus\u00a0Papaver<\/i>.<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n

        Meconopsis<\/i>\u00a0is composed of mostly Asian dwelling species, and a single European representative,\u00a0M. cambrica<\/i>. Kadereit et al. (1997) first provided evidence that this relationship is not monophyletic. Carolan et al. (2006) confirmed the separation of\u00a0M. cambrica<\/i>\u00a0from the rest of\u00a0Meconopsis<\/i>. In fact, it forms a well-supported sister-group to the core sections of\u00a0Papaver<\/i>, excluding\u00a0Argemonidium<\/i>,\u00a0Californicum<\/i>,\u00a0Horrida<\/i>and\u00a0Meconella<\/i>.<\/p>\n

        The core sections of\u00a0Papaver<\/i>\u00a0s.s. form a well-supported clade, consisting of\u00a0Pseudopilosa<\/i>,\u00a0Pilosa<\/i>,\u00a0Papaver<\/i>,\u00a0Carinatae<\/i>,\u00a0Meconidium<\/i>,\u00a0Oxytona<\/i>, and\u00a0Rhoeadium<\/i>.[3]<\/sup>[13]<\/sup>Pseudopilosa<\/i>\u00a0spp. have a subscapose growth habit, and their distribution includes south-western Asia, northern Africa and southern Spain.[4]<\/sup>\u00a0There are some leaves on the lower part of the flower axis carrying a single flower. Carolan et al.\u2019s (2006) analysis placed\u00a0Pseudopilosa<\/i>\u00a0as sister to the remaining\u00a0Papaver<\/i>\u00a0s.s. sections.Pilosa<\/i>\u00a0is a single species,\u00a0P. pilosum<\/i>, found mostly in western Turkey\u00a0Sects.\u00a0Pilosa<\/i>\u00a0and\u00a0Pseudopilosa<\/i>\u00a0are separated based on morphological and chemical differences.[4]<\/sup>[17]<\/sup><\/p>\n

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        Papaver rhoeas<\/i>, a common poppy across Europe<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n

        The monophyly of\u00a0Carinatae<\/i>,\u00a0Papaver<\/i>\u00a0and\u00a0Rhoeadium<\/i>\u00a0is questionable based on current molecular evidence.\u00a0Papaver<\/i>\u00a0sect.Rhoeadium<\/i>\u00a0comprises seventeen annual species.[18]<\/sup>\u00a0Carolan et al. (2006) use three representative species,\u00a0P. commutatum<\/i>,\u00a0P. dubium<\/i>, and\u00a0P. rhoeas<\/i>\u00a0for their genetic analysis. The geographic center of\u00a0Rhoeadium<\/i>\u2019s diversity is in south-western Asia and the Aegean area. They have porocidal capsules and usually dark filaments. This section is morphologically diverse however, leading Kadereit (1989) to recognize three distinct groups. The first comprises species with tetraploid and hexaploid genomes, with long capsules. The second group contains diploid species and diverse morphologies. The third group consists of diploid species and uniform morphologies. Carolan et al. (2006) showed some incongruences between their trnL-F and ITS maximum parsimony trees, showing weak support for Kadereit\u2019s (1989) groupings. Further analyses with more species and more samples will be necessary to resolve the phylogeny at this level.<\/p>\n

        Papaver<\/i>\u00a0has traditionally been characterized by the absence of a stigma, and the presence of a sessile stigmatic disc. Carolan et al. (2006) demonstrated that several species with this trait however are closely related to taxa possessing a style e.g.\u00a0S. heterophylla<\/i>\u00a0and\u00a0P. californicum<\/i>, and P. sect.\u00a0Meconella<\/i>\u00a0and Asian\u00a0Meconopsis<\/i>. This evidence, in combination with morphological differences among the discs suggests convergent evolutionary pathways.\u00a0Papaver<\/i>\u00a0has long been considered the most derived clade within Papaveroideae, due to the belief that the stigmatic disc was an apomorphous characteristic. Sections\u00a0Meconella<\/i>\u00a0and\u00a0Californicum<\/i>\u00a0exhibit valvate dehiscence, and their basal position within\u00a0Papaver<\/i>\u00a0suggest this may be an ancestral form.\u00a0Its presence in\u00a0Meconidium<\/i>, however, suggests it is also a synapomorphy within that group.<\/p>\n

        Note:\u00a0Meconella<\/i>\u00a0(not to be confused with the genus\u00a0Meconella<\/i>) has an\u00a0alpine\u00a0and circumpolar\u00a0arctic\u00a0distribution and includes some of the most northerly-growing\u00a0vascularland plants.<\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"

        Papaver\u00a0\/p\u0259\u02c8pe\u026av\u0259r\/\u00a0is a\u00a0genus\u00a0of 70\u2013100\u00a0species\u00a0of frost-tolerant\u00a0annuals,\u00a0biennials, and\u00a0perennials\u00a0native\u00a0to\u00a0temperate\u00a0and cold regions of Eurasia, Africa and North America. It is…<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":4,"featured_media":14697,"comment_status":"open","ping_status":"open","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"image","meta":{"ngg_post_thumbnail":0,"footnotes":""},"categories":[179,224,188,212],"tags":[1239],"class_list":["post-14702","post","type-post","status-publish","format-image","has-post-thumbnail","hentry","category-more","category-news","category-plants","category-weekly-news","tag-papaver","post_format-post-format-image"],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/archive2.ankakh.com\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/posts\/14702","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/archive2.ankakh.com\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/posts"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/archive2.ankakh.com\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/types\/post"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/archive2.ankakh.com\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/users\/4"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/archive2.ankakh.com\/index.php?rest_route=%2Fwp%2Fv2%2Fcomments&post=14702"}],"version-history":[{"count":0,"href":"https:\/\/archive2.ankakh.com\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/posts\/14702\/revisions"}],"wp:featuredmedia":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/archive2.ankakh.com\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/media\/14697"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/archive2.ankakh.com\/index.php?rest_route=%2Fwp%2Fv2%2Fmedia&parent=14702"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/archive2.ankakh.com\/index.php?rest_route=%2Fwp%2Fv2%2Fcategories&post=14702"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/archive2.ankakh.com\/index.php?rest_route=%2Fwp%2Fv2%2Ftags&post=14702"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}